• You can learn more about climate education (educación climática) in Colombia through UNESCO and the Monitoring and Evaluating Climate Communication and Education (MECCE) Project here (and in Spanish here).
• Colombia’s greatest climate change threats are drought, land degradation (degradación del suelo/tierra), and coastal flooding. The majority of Colombians live in the Andes mountains region, which is being affected by rising temperatures and infrequent rains (lluvias infrecuentes). Climatologists predict that drought in Colombia will exacerbate water shortages, create agricultural decline, and reduce the productivity of hydropower (energía hidroeléctrica) electricity generation.
• Climate awareness is especially high in Colombia, with 98% of surveyed residents stating they were aware climate change is occurring. The vast majority of polled Colombian citizens also agreed that climate change is an urgent problem that needs to be addressed. 
• While many climate policies identify education as an important sector for raising climate awareness and training, fleshed-out frameworks are missing. Colombia has implemented policies supporting environmental education since the mid-1990s but is working towards climate-specific education to help its citizens build resilience (resiliencia). 
• In primary and secondary schools, Colombian education guidelines do not require climate-specific education but instead offer guidelines for general environmental instruction. However, Colombian educators do have access to outside resources from the national Ministry of Education and non-governmental organizations to educate their students on climate change. 
• Colombian institutions of higher education are working towards climate change awareness and mitigation. In 2019, 37% of public and private Colombian universities were involved in climate change action, mostly working on educating students and the general public. The country also has an alliance of sustainability-focused institutions called the University Union in Sustainable Production and Consumption (Red Universitaria para la Producción y el Consumo). This union aims to increase environmental sustainability across higher education with a focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions (emissiones de gases de efecto invernadero).

Climate and culture in selected Spanish-speaking countries (Clima y Cultura en Países Hispanoablantes Seleccionados)

Spain (España)

Map of Spain, located in southwestern Europe, along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (from Rodriguez, 2023).

• Castilian, a dialect of Spanish originating in northern Spain, is the official language of Spain. The country is home to over 43 million native Spanish speakers.
• Located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe (map above), Spain has several climatic zones due to its expansive geography. Northern Spain, which borders the Atlantic Ocean, is generally humid (húmedo) with plentiful rainfall and an average annual temperature between 6°C (43°F) and 20°C (68°F). Southern Spain is more arid (árido), with less precipitation, and an average temperature between 10°C (50°F) and 26°C (79°F).
• Agriculture is an important part of Spanish culture for traditional foods and festivals. For example, olive oil has been essential to Spanish cuisine for three thousand years. It is used in many popular dishes including paella, tortilla española, pan con tomate, and more. Spain produces more olive oil than any other country in the world, and the average Spaniard consumes over 9 liters (2.4 gallons) of olive oil a year. Spain’s warm (cálida), dry (seca), and sunny (soleada) climate fosters the growth of olive trees, which are native to the Mediterranean region. 
• Destructive agricultural practices, rising temperatures, and declining precipitation contribute to shrinking wetlands (humedales) in south and central Spain. These factors threaten Spain’s agriculture and food production.
  • In 2022, researchers found that the Iberian Peninsula is experiencing its driest climate in over 1,000 years. Normally, Spain receives most of its precipitation during the winter when low-pressure systems form in the Atlantic Ocean. However, Azores high (image below), a high-pressure system that forms in the winter and blocks moisture from reaching Spain, is becoming increasingly common as a result of global warming (calentamiento global). Before industrial carbon emissions, Azores highs would occur once every ten years, but since the 1980s, that frequency has increased to once every four years. Azores highs are creating drier conditions that, in combination with more frequent heat waves, are threatening Spanish agriculture.

Map of Azores high, a high-pressure system that can form during winter in the eastern Atlantic Ocean (from The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). When it occurs, the Azores high prevents moisture from reaching Spain (not pictured, but located northeast of the Azores High), creating drought conditions.

• More than two-thirds of freshwater supplies in Spain are used for agricultural irrigation, and much of this water is drawn from rivers and aquifers. The southern region of Spain is a major producer of crops. However, no major rivers flow through this part of the country. To solve this, officials have transferred water from nearby rivers. Several major rivers, such as the Guadiana in central Spain, and wetlands are being dried up from overuse (image below).
• Olive oil production has been directly impacted by the water shortage. Without sufficient irrigation, olive trees produce stunted or shriveled fruit. In 2022, olive crops were reduced by over 30% due to the drought.

Photograph of a dried-out marsh in Las Tablas de Daimiel national park, in central Spain, after the rainy season in 2021 (from Burgen, 2021).

Argentina

Map of Argentina in the southeastern tip of South America, west of the Atlantic Ocean (from Eidt et al., 2023).

• Argentina is home to almost 45 million native Spanish speakers, the third highest in the world. Spanish is by far the most widely spoken language in the country, though a significant number of Argentinians speak Portuguese, English, Italian, Levantine Arabic, and Indigenous languages.
• Argentina, unlike many other countries in South America, is dominated by temperate (templado) climate. The southern portion of the country, containing the southern tip of the Andes mountains, is more arid with tundra and polar characteristics. Overall, Argentina experiences moderate precipitation and frequent storm events.
• Like Spain, Argentina has seasonal agriculture which is important to the country’s culture.
  • The Fiesta de la Vendimia (Harvest Festival) in the city of Mendoza is a celebration of local wine that takes place every February-March. This event includes a series of parades, local performances (image below), wine tasting, and the Queen of Vendimia beauty pageant. 

Photograph of an amphitheater-styled performance in Mendoza, Argentina for the Fiesta de la Vendimia. Over 25,000 people attend the three-hour music and fireworks show (from Barnes, 2018).

• • The Mendoza region produces the most wine in Argentina. Located on the eastern foothills of the Andes, this area is characterized by its high-altitude plains. Although this area is geographically a desert (desierto), its high altitude helps maintain moderate temperatures that foster local wineries.
  • El Niño, a climate pattern of uncharacteristically high sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, has a great effect on the success of wineries in Argentina. During El Niño years, eastern Argentina gets more humid, precipitation increases, and cold air anomalies occur in the spring and summer. These climate conditions are damaging to wine crops. In 2016, a strong El Niño year, the country lost 27% of its wine harvest, with the Mendoza region losing almost 40%. The harvest season was pushed back from February-March to April due to cooler temperatures and increased rainfall. Climatologists predict that anthropogenic climate change will make El Niño events twice as frequent and more intense.

Peru (Perú)

Map of Peru, located in northwestern South America, east of the Pacific Ocean (from Preston Moore et al., 2023).

• Over 28 million native Spanish speakers live in Peru. While Spanish is the official language of Peru, many Indigenous languages, like Quechua and Aymara are also widely spoken.
• Located just south of the equator, Peru is a tropical country with a variety of climatic conditions. Peru is divided into three main regions (map above): the arid coastal plains to the west, the high-altitude Andes mountains in the center, and the humid Amazon Basin to the east. Temperatures throughout the country range from 8°C to 35°C  (47°F to 95°F), mainly depending on the region.
• Alpacas, a close relative of the camel and llama, are an important part of Peruvian culture and livelihoods. These animals are native to Peru and have been used for food and clothes since they were first domesticated 6,000 years ago. Today, alpacas are raised for their valuable fleece, which can be made into garments and blankets.
  • Many herders raise alpacas in the Peruvian highlands (image below), where there have historically been persistent grasslands despite low annual rainfall. However, anthropogenic climate change is disrupting normal weather conditions and threatening alpacas in Peru. The Peruvian highlands usually have reliable moderate temperatures, but climate change is making temperatures more extreme. Sunny days are hotter than normal and cold snaps are becoming more common, killing young alpacas. The land is also becoming less productive as pasture land overtakes native marsh grasses that rely on glacial stream flows. Global warming is pushing back Andes glaciers (glaciares) and reducing stream flows during the dry season. As wetlands dry up, alpacas are left without their natural food sources.

Photograph of alpaca herders with their livestock taken in 2021. The baby alpaca in the front was injected with medicine before the herd’s seasonal migration (migración). Cold snaps brought on by anthropogenic climate change weaken alpacas’ immune systems, exposing them to fatal diseases (from Cinque, 2022).

Language practice

Explore the following headline and the accompanying image and its description in Spanish from an article published in 2021 by the United Nations (you can read the entire article here). Use the vocabulary and grammar guidelines provided below to find out what this article is about.

Cambio climático: América Latina será una de las regiones más afectadas